¹ Department of Foreign Languages, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xiban, 710032, China;

² Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xiban, 710032, China

Corresponding Author: Prof. Yumei Zhou, Department of Foreign Languages, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Changle West Road, Xiban, 710032, PR China; Tel: +86-029-84774475; E-mail: zhouym@fmmu.edu.cn.

Note: Ji Zhou and Hang Xu contributed equally to this work.

	ABSTRACT
	INTRODUCTION
	METHODS
	RESULTS
	DISCUSSION
	ACKNOWLEDGMENT
	CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
	REFERENCES

	ABSTRACT

Huangdi Neijing • Su Wen (Su Wen) is the first recommended book for foreign readers who are interested in preservation of health and ancient Chinese culture. It is a pity that many life-nurturing terms in the classic were translated differently in different English versions, which may confuse and even misguide the readers. This study aimed at investigating foreignization and domestication on rendering life-nurturing terms in three representative versions of Su Wen. A corpus of 101 life-nurturing Chinese terms and their corresponding English versions was established. The translation methods of the terms without and with specific TCM concepts were identified and the translation strategies related to foreignization and domestication were analyzed to reveal the linguistic features of the translated life-nurturing terms in three versions. Our study found that translation methods such as literal translation, transliteration with additional explanation, and transliteration-literal translation could achieve the effect of foreignization while such translation methods as free translation, interpretive translation and literal translation with annotation could produce the effect of domestication. The results of the study suggest that foreignization rather than domestication is mainly applied in rendering the life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts to retain their unique linguistic and cultural features accurately, concisely and elegantly. The study of foreignization and domestication in the translation of life-nurturing terms is of great help to the translation of traditional Chinese medical classics with accuracy in meaning, smoothness in expression and faithfulness in style. .

	INTRODUCTION

   The emergence of COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 has led to an unprecedented global public health crisis (1). Although no wonder drugs are available for the treatment of the disease, some traditional Chinese herbs have shown their beneficial effects in the prevention and treatment of the disease (2). Therefore, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained popularity in the world. Nowadays, as people give priority to their health, more and more foreigners are eager to get acquainted with the unique ways of preserving health in TCM. Huangdi Neijing • Su Wen (Su Wen), which is rich in theory, principles and ways of maintaining good health, is the first recommended book for foreigners who are interested in preservation of health and ancient Chinese culture. The classic has been translated into different English versions by translators at home and abroad. However, there are dramatic differences among the English versions of Su Wen, including the rendering of life-nurturing terms. The fact that the same life-nurturing term was translated differently may confuse and even misguide the readers who intend to master the ways of health preservation in TCM. Therefore, a comparative analysis of the translation strategies in life-nurturing termsof Su Wen is of paramount importance.

   It is common knowledge that language and culture are inseparable. Juri Lotman, a prominent literary scholar, semiotician and cultural historian, once remarked, “No language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have the structure of natural language at its center” (3). As the interlingual communication of the meaning of source-language texts by means of equivalent target-language texts, translation inevitably involves different cultures in the translating process. Foreignization and domestication are two important translation strategies in the translation of traditional Chinese medical classics. However, few researchers have made a study of the translation strategies in life-nurturing terms of Su Wen from the perspective of foreignization and domestication. Our study was focused on the preference of foreignization or domestication in three English versions of Su Wen: including Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Medicine Plain Conversation by Li Zhaoguo, Yellow Emperor’s Canon Internal Medicine by Wu Liansheng and Wu Qi (Wu), and The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine by Ilza Veith. The study of foreignization and domestication in the translation of life-nurturing terms is of great help to the translation of traditional Chinese medical classics with accuracy in meaning, smoothness in expression and faithfulness in style. Practically, the findings of the study will popularize the TCM knowledge of keeping in good health and provide a new approach to the fight against diseases.

	METHODS

   Selection of Chinese life-nurturing terms in Su Wen

   Our study established a corpus of 101 life-nurturing Chinese terms which were extracted from the book Again Broadly Corrected and Annotated/Chong Guang Bu Zhu Huangdi Neijing • Su Wen printed in Ming Dynasty and were retrieved from some authoritative Chinese dictionaries such as A Dictionary of Common Nominal Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacology (4). The selection of the Chinese terms was confined to the first 34 chapters of Su Wen in that they contained most of the life-nurturing terms in the book. In addition, the selected Chinese terms were investigated by four TCM specialists and their careful exanimation proved that they covered most fundamental concepts concerning health preservation in the book.

   Categorization of the selected Chinese life-nurturing terms in Su Wen

   Our study divided the 101 Chinese life-nurturing terms into. According to the connotation of these terms they were classified into the terms with specific TCM concepts such as 阴, 阳, 神 and 气, and the terms without specific TCM concepts. According to the contents of these termsthey were categorized intothe terms reflecting the principles of maintaining health and the terms presenting the way of maintaining health. Some terms like 形神合一 (unity of body and spirit) and 未病先防 (prevention of disease first) are the fundamental principles of keeping in good health while many other terms depicted the life-nurturing methods, such as 情志调养 (regulating one’s emotions) and 饮食养生 (following strict daily regimen). According to the number of Chinese characters in these terms theywere classified: two-character terms like 按跷 (Anqiao), three-character terms like 悲胜怒 (Sorrow can overcome the anger), and four-character terms like 去世离俗 (abandoning secular desires).

   Selection of three English versions of Su Wen

   The selected three English versions of Su Wen for the study met the three criteria of sample collection proposed by Nwugo (5). Firstly, representativeness. Nwugo emphasized that a conscious effort must be made to guarantee the texts are written by members of experts in the related fields. The translators of Su Wen were a prestigious Chinese scholar Zhaoguo Li, two Chinese Americans economist Liansheng Wu and TCM practitioner Qi Wu (Wu), and an American historian Ilza Veith, who was conferred a doctor’s degree upon her English version of Su Wen (6).

   Secondly, reputation. Nwugo suggested that the esteemed members of an assumed readership should be held for a particular publication or a group of publications. Until now, more than 12 English versions of Su Wen have beenpublished, among which the three versions are quite popular with TCM professionals and learners at home and abroad. Zhaoguo Li’s version has been funded by a national TCM publishing project and highly appraised by TCM professionals and translators (7). Wu’s version was awarded a gold prize in an internationally top-notch TCM conference in America in 1996. Veith’s version has been recommended as the most readable translation to native-English readers. Archives of Internal Medicine spoke highly of Veith’s version, commenting that “Veith has created a charming yet scholarly work” (8).

   Finally, accessibility. Nwugu highlighted the ease with which texts that constitute the corpus can be obtained. The three selected versions of Su Wen are not only readily available in paperbacks but also easily accessible online for free. The convenience and accessibility of the texts make the three English versions friendly and helpful to our corpus establishment.

   Data processing and statistical analysis

   We established a micro-parallel corpus in an Excel with the 101 Chinese life-nurturing terms based on three categories and their English equivalents from three versions of Su Wen. According to the identified preference of translation strategies in three versions of Su Wen, the 101 terms without or with specific TCM concepts were analyzed based upon their translation methods. At first the translation methods of the translators and their translation strategies of foreignization and domestication were identified and counted. Then the frequency of each strategy was computed by Excel 2019 and analyzed with SPSS 22 software to reveal different translators’ preference of translation strategies. Chi-squared test was conducted to compare the proportional ratio of foreignization or domestication in different versions of Su Wen.

	RESULTS

   Preference to foreignization and domestication in three versions

   Figures 1 and 2 indicate the translation methods in rendering the life-nurturing terms without and with specific TCM concepts in three versions. When the life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts were translated, literal translation was the primary translation method in Li’s and Veith’s versions while free translation was the most frequently applied method in Wu’s version, followed by literal translation and interpretive translation (Figure 1). In the translation of life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts, transliteration-literal translation was the dominant translation method, followed by transliteration with annotation in Li’s and Veith’s versions but free translation was the most frequently applied method, followed by interpretive translation and literal translation with annotation in Wu’s version (Figure 2).

   Based on the analysis of the translation methods in three versions of Su Wen, their corresponding translation strategies were induced in rendering the life-nurturing terms. As for the translation of the life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts, Figure 3 shows that the frequency of foreignization applied by Li and Veith significantly outnumbered that of domestication (P<0.05) while opposite in Wu’s version (P<0.05).

   The translation strategies in rendering life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts were compared and analyzed at both syntactic and cultural levels to demonstrate the preference of foreignization and domestication in three versions. At the syntactic level, the frequency of foreignization applied by Li and Veith was significantly higher than that of domestication in rendering life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts (P<0.05) while opposite in Wu’s version (P<0.05) (Figure 4). At the cultural level, the frequency of foreignization applied by Li and Wu was significantly higher than that of domestication (P<0.05) while opposite in Veith’s version (P<0.05) (Figure 5). The findings indicated that in the translation of life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts foreignization was preferred at both syntactic and cultural levels in Li’s version, domestication was preferred at syntactic level but foreignization at cultural level in Wu’s version, and foreignization was preferred at syntactic level but domestication at cultural level in Veith’s version.

   The statistical analysis by Chi-square test revealed that there were significant differences in translation strategies among three English versions of Su Wen. Although the frequency of translation strategies in Wu’s version was significantly different from that in both Veith’s and Li’s versions (P<0.05), there was no significant difference between Veith’s and Li’s versions (P>0.05) in the frequency of translation strategies. However, given the cultural differences between TCM and Western medicine, there were significant differences in the frequency of translation strategies in three versions.

   Application of translation methods related to foreignization

   Based on the comparative study of rendering life-nurturing terms without and with specific TCM concepts, it was evident that six translation methods were commonly applied in three versions, including free translation, interpretive translation, literal translation with annotation, literal translation, transliteration with annotation, and transliteration-literal translation. Through the analysis of the translatorsb application of translation methods, it was reasonable to reveal their preference of domestication or foreignization in rendering the life-nurturing terms in Su Wen. Since foreignization is SL culture-oriented and is meant to retain the exotic flavor of the original term, translation methods such as literal translation, transliteration with additional explanation, and transliteration-literal translation could achieve the effect of foreignization.

   1)Literal translation emphasizes “an adequate representation of the original, aiming at preserving the SL wording intact than producing a naturally reading TL. It strives to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the original texts” (9). As is indicated in our study, two thirds of life-nurturing terms are common expressions without culture-specific concepts so it is not difficult to convey the semantic meanings of the terms and retain their structural form at the same time in English. In such cases, literal translation is employed to reproduce their English equivalents clearly and concisely without ambiguity. For example: 怒伤肝（《素问 • 阴阳应象大论篇》）by Wu: Excessive anger will hurt the liver. 久视伤血（《素问 • 宣明五气篇》）by Li: Seeing for a long time impairs the blood.

   2) Transliteration with annotation is a method of following Chinese pinyin with additional explanation within brackets, which is particularly common in dealing with culture-specific terms (10). As some life-nurturing terms reflect the unique principles and methods of preserving health in ancient Chinese culture, they are totally foreign terms to foreign readers and have no corresponding equivalents in English. Neither literal translation nor free translation can convey the profound connotation of such terms. Under these circumstances, transliteration with annotation should be adopted, which can retain the exotic nuances of the terms by pinyin and then provide supplementary explanation to the terms within brackets to make those without fundamental TCM knowledge intelligible and comprehensible. For example: 精神（《素问 • 上古天真论篇》）by Li: Jingshen (Essence-spirit). 天癸（《素问 • 上古天真论篇》）by Wu: Tiangui (the substance necessary for the production of growth, development and reproductive function of human body).

   3) Transliteration-literal translation is a method of combining Chinese pinyin with literal translation or vice versa for the translation of a life-nurturing term with culture-specific concept (11, 12). Since the Chinese term is a common expression on health preservation and is easy to understand, literal translation should be adopted to reproduce both the meaning and the structure of the term. As for the culture-specific Chinese character in the term, it is wise of the translator to adopt its accepted version if its transliteration like yin and yang to the equivalents of 阴 and 阳 has been widely known. For example: 久卧伤气（《素问 • 宣明五气篇》） by Li: Sleeping for a long time impairs qi. 秋冬养阴（《素问 • 四气调神大论篇》）by Li: nourish yin in autumn and winter.

   Application of translation methods related to domestication

   Since domestication is TL culture-oriented, conforming to the lexical and syntactic patterns and the rules of target language (13), such translation methods as free translation, interpretive translation and literal translation with annotation could produce the effect of domestication.

   1) Free translation which is also known as sense-for-sense translation emphasizes the transfer of the meaning of the SL over the accurate reproduction of original wording, aiming at producing a naturally reading TL than preserving the SL wording intact (14). As some Chinese life-nurturing terms consist of two to four Chinese characters with concise form but profound connotations, sometimes it is difficult to find their corresponding equivalents to express their meanings succinctly in English. In such case, free translation should be applied to reproduce the meanings of the terms without ambiguity rather than stick to the linguistic features of the original Chinese terms. For example, 治未病（《素问 • 四气调神大论篇》）by Wu: Precaution is always emphasized. 积精全神（《素问 • 上古天真论篇》）by Li: avoiding distraction.

   2) Interpretive translation refers to the method which compensates what is lost in translation process at linguistic and cultural levels. It explicates what is linguistically implied in the original and what is part of cognitive context of source language readers but foreign to target language readers. As some life-nurturing terms manifest the feature of explicit cohesion in archaic Chinese (15), it is difficult to express their implied logic, which is quite different from that of English. Furthermore, the accurate understanding of those terms requires the translator to have the fundamental knowledge of TCM. Therefore, interpretive translation is employed to make the implied logic explicit and at the same time provide the relevant knowledge of the terms. For example, 久坐伤肉（《素问  • 宣明五气篇》）by Wu: Protracted sitting will overstrain the spleen and impair the muscle. 久立伤骨（《素问 •  宣明五气篇》）by Wu: Protracted standing will overstrain the kidney and impair the bone.

   3) Literal translation with annotation is applied when translators take literal translation with additional explanation to help the readers understand the culture and connotation of the term. As some life-nurturing terms embody the concepts in theory of Five-Elements and theory of yin and yang, it is difficult to make the Western readers understand their concise versions accurately without explaining their relevant TCM knowledge. Such being the case, literal translation with annotation is the best method for the translation of culture-specific terms. For example, 恐胜喜（《素问 • 阴阳应象大论篇》）by Wu: Terror can overcome the overjoy (Terror is the emotion of kidney, and water can restrict the fire). 悲胜怒（《素问 • 阴阳应象大论篇》）by Wu: Sorrow can overcome the anger (Sorrow is the emotion of lung, and metal can restrict the wood).

   Since life-nurturing terms in Su Wen embody abstruse philosophy of TCM and ancient Chinese culture, it is a challenge for the translator to find their English equivalents both in form and meaning. Six translation methods such as free translation, interpretive translation, literal translation with annotation, literal translation, transliteration with annotation, and transliteration-literal translation were discussed in the practice of foreignization and domestication, which represented the translation methods in rendering the selected 101 life-nurturing terms in three versions of Su Wen.

View larger version : [in a new window] Figure 1. Translation methods in translating life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts.

 

View larger version : [in a new window] Figure 2. Translation methods in translating life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts.

 

View larger version : [in a new window] Figure 3. Translation strategies in translating life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts.

 

View larger version : [in a new window] Figure 4. Translation strategies in translating life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts at syntactical level.

 

View larger version : [in a new window] Figure 5. Translation strategies in translating life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts at cultural level.

	DISCUSSION

   The three English versions of the life-nurturing terms in Su Wen demonstrate their different preference of foreignization or domestication in rendering these terms. This study revealed the priority rules of applying foreignization or domestication in the translation of the life-nurturing terms without and with specific TCM concepts based on their corresponding translation methods in three versions. The following conclusions can be drawn from our research.B B B

   Firstly, in the translation of the life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts, two major translation methods such as literal translation, free translation are frequently employed in rendering such terms, with literal translation ranked at the first position. Therefore, it is essential for the translators to realize that literal translation is the dominant method in the translation of the life-nurturing terms without specific TCM concepts, followed by free translation, suggesting that foreignization should be applied more frequently than domestication to retain the concise and compact stylistic features of those life-nurturing terms.

   Secondly, in the rendering of many life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts, three major translation methods such as transliteration-literal translation, literal translation and free translation are frequently employed in the translation of such terms, with transliteration-literal translation ranked at the top. Since some life-nurturing terms reflect the unique principles and ways of preserving health in ancient China, it is difficult to find their English equivalents. Therefore, it is necessary for the translators to realize that transliteration-literal translation is the dominant method in the translation of life-nurturing terms with specific TCM concepts, followed by literal translation, suggesting that foreignization should be more frequently applied in the translation of such terms to reveal their syntactic forms and lexical meanings without ambiguity.

   Thirdly, the translatorsb preference of foreignization or domestication in rendering life-nurturing terms in Su Wen reflect the style and qualities of the translators, such as their proficiency in English and Chinese languages and cultures, fundamental knowledge of TCM, educational background, and professional experiences. Zhaoguo Li attached great importance to the uniqueness of the Chinese language and the readersb understandability of the terms while Liansheng Wu and Qi Wu gave special emphasis to conveying the cultural connotations of TCM concepts. As for Ilza Veith, the first Western translator of this classic since 1949, she tried to retain the uniqueness of the Chinese language in her translation. Accordingly, the translators should not only have a good command of both English and Chinese languages but also master the fundamental knowledge about archaic Chinese and TCM. In addition, as the life-nurturing terms rooted in Chinese culture involve profound connotations, the translators should get acquainted with ideological and cultural divergences between TCM and Western medicine.

   Finally, the translation strategies are classified into foreignization and domestication, but it doesnbt mean these two strategies are mutually exclusive. In fact they coexist and are complementary to each other. Under special circumstances both foreignization and domestication are employed to render a life-nurturing term to achieve accuracy in meaning and smoothness in expression and meanwhile to produce the stylistic effect of the original term. With the integration of foreignization and domestication for the translation of complicated culture-specific terms, cultural diversities should be revealed in the translation and adequate considerations should be given to the foreign readersb cultures, expectations and aesthetic tendencies.

   In summary, our study may provide some theoretical and practical implications for Chinese-English translation of life-nurturing terms in ancient Chinese medical classics. As far as we are concerned, few people have discussed the translation of life-nurturing terms from the perspective of foreignization and domestication in Su Wen. Compared with previous studies of foreignization and domestication from the perspectives of semantics and pragmatics at lexical and syntactical levels, the findings of our study will shed some light on the application of foreignization and domestication in life-nurturing terminology translation in Su Wen, which has broadened the scope of the application of foreignization and domestication in TCM translation. Furthermore, the study will enhance the foreign readersb awareness of the quintessence of TCM and help them follow the ways to keep in good health, which will eventually promote the dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese culture in the world.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENT

   This research program has been funded by Project of Foreign Language Discipline Construction of Shaanxi Province (No. 20WY-25).

	CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

   The authors declare that no conflicting interests exist.

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